The English Civil War and Execution of Charles I

The English Civil War (1642-1651) was fought between Royalists (Cavaliers) supporting King Charles I and Parliamentarians (Roundheads) led by Oliver Cromwell. The conflict arose from disputes over royal authority, taxation without parliamentary consent, and religious policy. Charles I believed in the divine right of kings; Parliament believed in its right to constrain royal power. After years of brutal fighting that killed an estimated 200,000 people (proportionally higher than World War I losses), Charles was captured, tried for treason, and on January 30, 1649, publicly beheaded outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall — the first time a European monarch was formally tried and executed by his own subjects. England became a republic under Cromwell's Commonwealth and then Protectorate (1649-1660). The monarchy was restored in 1660 under Charles II, but the principle established was permanent: the king rules under the law, and sovereignty ultimately resides with Parliament, not the Crown.