Indus Valley Civilization Flourishes

Around 2600 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization (also called the Harappan Civilization) reached its mature phase, spanning over 1.5 million square kilometers across present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and eastern Afghanistan — larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia combined. Its great cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, featured remarkably planned grid layouts, sophisticated drainage and sewage systems, standardized brick sizes, public baths, and granaries. The civilization supported an estimated 5 million people, traded with Mesopotamia, and used a script that remains undeciphered. Unlike contemporary civilizations, no monumental temples, palaces, or evidence of kings have been found — suggesting a possibly egalitarian or merchant-governed society. The Indus people cultivated wheat, barley, and cotton (the earliest known cotton cultivation), and their craftsmanship in bronze, terracotta, and semi-precious stones was extraordinary.